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Det dynamisk skiftende indhold på denne side er sammensat af bearbejdet materiale, der fortrinsvis er inspireret af fakta fra ovenstående links. Disse links er i sig selv og i høj grad spændende og anbefalelsesværdig læsning.
Jeg påberåber mig således ingen former for ophavsret over nærværende materiale.
Jeg takker hermed for inspiration. :-)
M. Due 2024
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Eugenius II - 824-827 :
Eugenius II (Sant'Eugenio II) Eugene II; Eugene II blev pave 5/6 824 og døde 27/8 827 (usikker dag); Der var uro i Vatikanet fra Paschal Is død i nogle måneder, før den nye pave blev indsat.
Paven Eugene II (Latin: Eugenius II;?-27 August 827) var pave fra 11 maj 824 til sin død i 827. En indfødt i Rom, blev han valgt til at lykkes Paschal jeg. En anden kandidat, Zinzinnus, blev foreslået af den plebejiske fraktion, og tilstedeværelsen af Lothar I, søn af den frankiske kejser Ludvig fromme, var nødvendig for at opretholde myndigheden i den nye pave. Lothar benyttede sig af lejligheden til at rette op på mange misbrug i den pavelige administration, til vest valget af paven i adelige, og for at bekræfte statutten at ikke paven bør være indviet før sit valg havde godkendelse af den frankiske kejser.
Valget
Han blev valgt til pave på 6 juni 824 efter død af Paschal jeg. Den afdøde pave havde forsøgt at dæmme op for den hurtigt stigende magt den romerske adel, der havde vendt til støtte til frankerne til at styrke deres position imod ham. Når Paschal døde, disse adelige gjort ihærdige bestræbelser på at erstatte ham med en kandidat i deres egne; og på trods af at gejstligheden foreslået en kandidat vil sandsynligvis fortsætte politikken med Paschal, adelen var en succes i deres forsøg. De sikrede indvielsen af Eugene, der var domkirkepræsten af St Sabina på Aventin, selv ved et dekret af Roman Council 769, under Stephen IV, de ikke havde ret til en reel andel i en pavelig valg. Deres kandidat er anført i tidligere udgaver af Liber Pontificalis at have været søn af Boemund, men i de nyere og mere præcise udgaver Faderens navn gives ikke. Mens domkirkepræsten af Roman Church, er han krediteret med at have opfyldt mest samvittighedsfuldt told af sin stilling. Efter at han blev pave, forskønnet han sin gamle kirke St. Sabina med mosaikker og metalarbejder bærer sit navn, der var stadig intakt så sent som i 1500-tallet. Eugene er beskrevet af hans levnedsbeskriver som enkle og ydmyge, lærde og veltalende, smuk og generøs, en elsker af fred, og helt besat med tanken om at gøre det var glædeligt at Gud.
Frankiske påvirkninger
Valget af Eugene II var en triumf for frankerne, og de løst efterfølgende til at forbedre deres position. Kejser Louis fromme sendte derfor sin søn Lothar til Rom for at styrke den frankiske indflydelse. Den romerske adel, der var blevet forvist i løbet af den foregående regeringstid og flygtede til Frankrig var hjemkaldt, og deres ejendom blev gendannet til dem. En Constitutio Romana blev så aftalt mellem paven og kejseren i 824, som avanceret de kejserlige prætentioner i byen Rom, men også kontrolleret strøm af adelen. Denne forfatning inkluderet den statut, som ingen pave bør være indviet før sit valg havde godkendelse af den frankiske kejser.
Tilsyneladende før Lothar venstre Rom ankom der ambassadører fra kejser Louis og grækerne om billede spørgsmål. I første omgang skrev den østlige Roman Emperor Michael II viste sig tolerant over for billed-tilbedere, og deres store mester, Theodore Studite, til ham til at formane ham "at forene os {kirke i Konstantinopel} til lederen af kirkerne Gud, Rom, og gennem det med de tre Patriarker" og forelægge eventuelle tvivlsomme punkter til afgørelse af gamle Rom efter gammel skik. Men Michael snart glemte sin tolerance, bittert forfulgt billede tilbedere, og bestræbt sig på at sikre samarbejde af Ludvig fromme. Han har også sendt udsendinge til paven til at høre ham på visse punkter, der er forbundet med tilbedelsen af billeder. Før du tager skridt til at opfylde ønskerne hos Michael, spurgte Louis pavens tilladelse for en række af sine biskopper til at samle og foretage en udvælgelse af passager fra fædre til at belyse det spørgsmål, som grækerne havde forelagt dem. Orloven var bevilget, men de biskopper, der mødtes i Paris i 825 var inkompetente for opgaven. Deres samling af uddrag fra fædrene var en masse af forvirrede og dårligt fordøjet lore, og både deres konklusioner og bogstaverne de ønskede paven til at videresende til grækerne var baseret på en komplet misforståelse af den anden Rådet Nicæa dekreter. Intet vides om resultatet af deres undersøgelser.
Et råd, som samles på Rom i regeringstid af Eugene passerede flere enactments til restaurering af Kirkens disciplin, traf foranstaltninger for stiftelsen af skoler og kapitler og besluttede mod præster iført verdslige kjole eller engagere sig i verdslige erhverv. Eugene også vedtaget forskellige bestemmelser for pleje af fattige, enker og forældreløse børn, og på at konto fik navn af "far til folk". Han døde den 27 August 827.
I 826 holdt Eugen et vigtigt Råd i Rom af 62 biskopper, hvor 38 disciplinære dekreter blev udstedt. En eller to af sine dekreter er bemærkelsesværdigt som viser at Eugen havde på hjertet avancement for læring. Ikke alene var uvidende biskopper og præster skal suspenderes, indtil de havde erhvervet sig tilstrækkelig lære at udføre deres hellige pligter, men det blev dekreteret at, som nogle steder var der hverken masters eller iver for at lære, mestre skulle være knyttet til de episkopale paladser, katedral kirker og andre steder til at give instruktion i helligt og høflig litteratur. For at hjælpe med arbejdet i konvertering af nord, skrev Eugene Rose Skt. Ansgar, Apostlen af skandinaverne, og sine kammerater "til alle sønnerne af den katolske kirke". Mønter af denne pave er bevarede bærer hans navn, og at af kejser Louis. Det er meningen, at han blev begravet i Peterskirken i overensstemmelse med brugerdefineret af tiden, selv om der er ingen dokumentarisk registrering at bekræfte den.
Eugene II (in Latin: Eugenius II), Pope (c. 824 - 27 August 827), a native of Rome, was chosen to succeed Paschal I. Another candidate, Zinzinnus, was proposed by the plebeian faction, and the presence of Lothair I, son of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious, was necessary in order to maintain the authority of the new pope. Lothair took advantage of this opportunity to redress many abuses in the papal administration, to vest the election of the pope in the nobles, and to confirm the statute that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval of the Frankish emperor.
Election
He was elected pope on 6 June 824 after the death of Paschal I. The late pope had attempted to curb the rapidly increasing power of the Roman nobility, who had turned for support to the Franks to strengthen their positions against him. When Paschal died, these nobles made strenuous efforts to replace him with a candidate of their own; and despite the fact that the clergy put forward a candidate likely to continue the policy of Paschal, the nobles were successful in their attempt. They secured the consecration of Eugene, who was the archpriest of St Sabina on the Aventine, although by a decree of the Roman Council of 769, under Stephen IV, they had no right to a real share in a papal election. Their candidate is stated in earlier editions of the Liber Pontificalis to have been the son of Boemund, but in the more recent and more accurate editions his father's name is not given. While archpriest of the Roman Church, he is credited with having fulfilled most conscientiously the duties of his position. After he became pope, he beautified his ancient church of St. Sabina with mosaics and metalwork bearing his name that were still intact as late as the 16th century. Eugene is described by his biographer as simple and humble, learned and eloquent, handsome and generous, a lover of peace, and wholly occupied with the thought of doing what was pleasing to God.
Frankish Influences
The election of Eugene II was a triumph for the Franks, and they subsequently resolved to improve their position. Emperor Louis the Pious accordingly sent his son Lothair to Rome to strengthen the Frankish influence. The Roman nobles who had been banished during the preceding reign and fled to France were recalled, and their property was restored to them. A Constitutio Romana was then agreed upon between the pope and the emperor in 824 which advanced the imperial pretensions in the city of Rome, but also checked the power of the nobles. This constitution included the statute that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval of the Frankish emperor.
Seemingly before Lothair left Rome, there arrived ambassadors from Emperor Louis and from the Greeks concerning the image question. At first the Eastern Roman Emperor Michael II showed himself tolerant towards the image-worshippers, and their great champion, Theodore the Studite, wrote to him to exhort him "to unite us (the Church of Constantinople) to the head of the Churches of God, Rome, and through it with the three Patriarchs" and to refer any doubtful points to the decision of Old Rome in accordance with ancient custom. But Michael soon forgot his tolerance, bitterly persecuted the image worshippers, and endeavoured to secure the co-operation of Louis the Pious. He also sent envoys to the pope to consult him on certain points connected with the worship of images. Before taking any steps to meet the wishes of Michael, Louis asked the pope's permission for a number of his bishops to assemble and make a selection of passages from the Fathers to elucidate the question that the Greeks had put before them. The leave was granted, but the bishops who met at Paris in 825 were incompetent for the task. Their collection of extracts from the Fathers was a mass of confused and ill-digested lore, and both their conclusions and the letters they wished the pope to forward to the Greeks were based on a complete misunderstanding of the decrees of the Second Council of Nicæa. Nothing is known of the result of their researches.
A council which assembled at Rome in the reign of Eugene passed several enactments for the restoration of church discipline, took measures for the foundation of schools and chapters, and decided against priests wearing secular dress or engaging in secular occupations. Eugene also adopted various provisions for the care of the poor, widows and orphans, and on that account received the name of "father of the people". He died on 27 August 827.
In 826 Eugene held an important council at Rome of 62 bishops, in which 38 disciplinary decrees were issued. One or two of its decrees are noteworthy as showing that Eugene had at heart the advancement of learning. Not only were ignorant bishops and priests to be suspended till they had acquired sufficient learning to perform their sacred duties, but it was decreed that, as in some localities there were neither masters nor zeal for learning, masters were to be attached to the episcopal palaces, cathedral churches and other places to give instruction in sacred and polite literature. To help in the work of the conversion of the North, Eugene wrote commending St. Ansgar, the Apostle of the Scandinavians, and his companions "to all the sons of the Catholic Church". Coins of this pope are extant bearing his name and that of Emperor Louis. It is supposed that he was buried in St. Peter's Basilica in accordance with the custom of the time, even though there is no documentary record to confirm it.
Pope Eugene II (Latin: Eugenius II; ? – 27 August 827) was Pope from 11 May 824 to his death in 827. A native of Rome, he was chosen to succeed Paschal I. Another candidate, Zinzinnus, was proposed by the plebeian faction, and the presence of Lothair I, son of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious, was necessary in order to maintain the authority of the new pope. Lothair took advantage of this opportunity to redress many abuses in the papal administration, to vest the election of the pope in the nobles, and to confirm the statute that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval of the Frankish emperor.
Election
He was elected pope on 6 June 824 after the death of Paschal I. The late pope had attempted to curb the rapidly increasing power of the Roman nobility, who had turned for support to the Franks to strengthen their positions against him. When Paschal died, these nobles made strenuous efforts to replace him with a candidate of their own; and despite the fact that the clergy put forward a candidate likely to continue the policy of Paschal, the nobles were successful in their attempt. They secured the consecration of Eugene, who was the archpriest of St Sabina on the Aventine, although by a decree of the Roman Council of 769, under Stephen IV, they had no right to a real share in a papal election. Their candidate is stated in earlier editions of the Liber Pontificalis to have been the son of Boemund, but in the more recent and more accurate editions his father's name is not given. While archpriest of the Roman Church, he is credited with having fulfilled most conscientiously the duties of his position. After he became pope, he beautified his ancient church of St. Sabina with mosaics and metalwork bearing his name that were still intact as late as the 16th century. Eugene is described by his biographer as simple and humble, learned and eloquent, handsome and generous, a lover of peace, and wholly occupied with the thought of doing what was pleasing to God.
Frankish Influences
The election of Eugene II was a triumph for the Franks, and they subsequently resolved to improve their position. Emperor Louis the Pious accordingly sent his son Lothair to Rome to strengthen the Frankish influence. The Roman nobles who had been banished during the preceding reign and fled to France were recalled, and their property was restored to them. A Constitutio Romana was then agreed upon between the pope and the emperor in 824 which advanced the imperial pretensions in the city of Rome, but also checked the power of the nobles. This constitution included the statute that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval of the Frankish emperor.
Seemingly before Lothair left Rome, there arrived ambassadors from Emperor Louis and from the Greeks concerning the image question. At first the Eastern Roman Emperor Michael II showed himself tolerant towards the image-worshippers, and their great champion, Theodore the Studite, wrote to him to exhort him "to unite us {the Church of Constantinople} to the head of the Churches of God, Rome, and through it with the three Patriarchs" and to refer any doubtful points to the decision of Old Rome in accordance with ancient custom. But Michael soon forgot his tolerance, bitterly persecuted the image worshippers, and endeavoured to secure the co-operation of Louis the Pious. He also sent envoys to the pope to consult him on certain points connected with the worship of images. Before taking any steps to meet the wishes of Michael, Louis asked the pope's permission for a number of his bishops to assemble and make a selection of passages from the Fathers to elucidate the question that the Greeks had put before them. The leave was granted, but the bishops who met at Paris in 825 were incompetent for the task. Their collection of extracts from the Fathers was a mass of confused and ill-digested lore, and both their conclusions and the letters they wished the pope to forward to the Greeks were based on a complete misunderstanding of the decrees of the Second Council of Nicæa. Nothing is known of the result of their researches.
A council which assembled at Rome in the reign of Eugene passed several enactments for the restoration of church discipline, took measures for the foundation of schools and chapters, and decided against priests wearing secular dress or engaging in secular occupations. Eugene also adopted various provisions for the care of the poor, widows and orphans, and on that account received the name of "father of the people". He died on 27 August 827.
In 826 Eugene held an important council at Rome of 62 bishops, in which 38 disciplinary decrees were issued. One or two of its decrees are noteworthy as showing that Eugene had at heart the advancement of learning. Not only were ignorant bishops and priests to be suspended till they had acquired sufficient learning to perform their sacred duties, but it was decreed that, as in some localities there were neither masters nor zeal for learning, masters were to be attached to the episcopal palaces, cathedral churches and other places to give instruction in sacred and polite literature. To help in the work of the conversion of the North, Eugene wrote commending St. Ansgar, the Apostle of the Scandinavians, and his companions "to all the sons of the Catholic Church". Coins of this pope are extant bearing his name and that of Emperor Louis. It is supposed that he was buried in St. Peter's Basilica in accordance with the custom of the time, even though there is no documentary record to confirm it.
Katolske begreber:
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Ordforklaring :
Liber Pontificalis Patriark Vatikan
Liber Pontificalis:[ - ] Liber Pontificalis: eller Pavernes Bog er en af de væsentlige kilder vedrørende den tidlige middelalders historie, men den er også genstand for stor skepsis i den henseende.
På det umiddelbare plan er bogen en samling kortfattede biografiske registreringer af de første paver op til slutningen af det 10. århundrede nævnt i kronologisk rækkefølge. Hver af registreringerne består af pavens regeringstid i antal år (og herudfra kan årstallene udledes), deres fødselssted og forældre, de samtidige kejsere, indsats med hensyn til byggeri (specielt vedrørende romerske kirker), udnævnelser, vigtigste erklæringer, begravelsessted og tiden indtil næste pave var valgt og indviet. Imidlertid vanskeliggør måden, den blev til på, at man kan fæste ordentlig lid til bogen som historisk dokumentation.
Liber Pontificalis er skrevet af underordnede embedsmænd ved paveretten, og der er fundet eksempler på forvanskninger, udeladelser og forfalskninger. Registreringerne for de
første tre århundreder
er derfor nok først og fremmest interessante for historikere som eksempler på, hvad man i det 5. århundrede vidste om den tidligste katolske kirke. Fra det 4. århundrede og frem er skribenterne på mere sikker grund, selv om der stadig kan findes fejl og mangler. Granskning af teksten lader formode, at der fandtes to tidlige versioner fra før belejringen af Rom i 546, men herefter er der tale om et enkelt eksemplar. Fra begyndelsen af det 7. århundrede (omkring tiden for Pave Honorius 1.'s indsættelse) og frem indtil indsættelsen af Pave Adrian 2. er registreringerne skrevet i samtiden kort efter hver paves død og dermed rimeligt præcise, når man ser bort fra de enkelte skribenters holdninger.
Fortsættelser af Liber Pontificalis blev senere lavet og fører beretningerne om paverne videre fra omkring 1100 til midten af det 15. århundrede, men kvaliteten heraf er meget varierende.
De mange skribenters arbejde over lang tid komplicerede arbejdet med at lave udgaver af værket til videnskabelige formål. Mod slutningen af det 19. århundrede gjorde Louis Duchesne og Thodor Mommsen begge forsøget, men Mommsens udgave er dog ikke komplet. I det 20. århundrede er der udkommet oversatte og kommenterede udgaver, hvor vægten af kommentarerne har gået på den historiske troværdighed af beskrivelserne.
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Patriark:[ - ] En patriark er overhovedet i en romersk-katolsk eller ortodoks kirkeprovins, et patriarkat. Da embedet er personorienteret bruger man sjældent betegnelser som f.eks. patriarkatet Konstantinopel, men som regel patriarken af Konstantinopel osv.
Fem patriarkater – i Rom, Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antiokia og Konstantinopel – har rødder i oldkirken. De andre er kommet til på senere tidspunkter, enten som belønning for loyalitet mod kirken eller af religionspolitiske grunde.
Patriarken Fotios af Konstantinopel (billede herover) levede fra ca. 820 til 893. Han regnes for en af de mest lærde mænd nogensinde i den Ortodokse Kirke.
Fotios var patriark af Konstantinopel - det vil sige, at han havde samme rolle i den østromerske, ortodokse kirke, som paven har den romersk-katolske kirke.
Fire af de ortodokse patriarkater, de fire første på listen, er oldkirkelige. De andre er nyere, og er knyttet til nationalkirker i forskellige lande.
- Patriarken af Konstantinopel (Den økumeniske patriark)
- Patriarken af Alexandria
- Patriarken af Antiokia
- Patriarken af Jerusalem
- Patriarken af Moskva og hele Rusland
- Patriarken af hele Bulgarien
- Katholikos-patriarken af hele Georgien
- Patriarken af hele Rumænien
- Den serbiske patriark
Den katolske kirkes patriarkater
Et af de katolske patriarkater går direkte tilbage til oldkirken, nemlig Rom. Patriarkaterne i Alexandria, Antiokia og Jerusalem har rødder i oldkirken, men disse steder var der i lang tid kun ortodokse patriarker.
Udover de nuværende patriarkater er der også i Den katolske kirke nogle historiske patriarkater, som af forskellige grunde ikke eksisterer mere.
Nuværende katolske patriarkater
- Patriarkatet i Rom (paven er patriark)
- Det koptiske patriarkat i Alexandria
- Det græske patriarkat i Antiokia
- Det syriske patrirkat i Antiokia
- Det maronittiske patriarkat i Antiokia
- Det romersk-katolske patriarkat i Jerusalem
- Patriarkat i Babylon (Bagdad)
- Patriarkat i Cilicia
- Patriarkat i Venezia
- Patriarkat i Lisabon
Historiske katolske patriarkater
- Det romersk-katolske patriarkat i Konstantinopel
- Det romersk-katolske patriarkat i Alexandria
- Det romersk-katolske patriarkat i Antiokia
- Patriarkatet i Vest-Indien
- Patriarkatet i Øst-Indien
De orientalske ortodokse kirkers patriarkater
- Paven og patriarken af Alexandria (Den koptiske ortodokse kirke)
- Patriarken af Antiokia (Den syriske ortodokse kirke)
- Katholikos-patriarken af Etchmiadzin og Armenia (Den armenske ortodokse kirke)
- Patriarken af Cilicia of Midt-Østen (Den armenske ortodokse kirke)
- Patriarken af hele Etiopien (Tewahedokirken)
- Patriarken af hele Eritrea (Den eritreanske ortodokse kirke)
De nestorianske patriarkater
De nestorianske kirker blev løsrevet fra resten af den kristne kirke i det 5. århundrede.
- Katholikos-patriarken af Babylon (Bagdad, Den assyriske kirke i øst)
- Katholikos-patriarken i Jerusalem (Kirken i øst og udenlands, sæde i Nordamerika)
Et patriarkat er en kultur, hvor magten og herredømmet besiddes af (de ældste) mænd, og hvor den fædrene linie tegner slægten. Magten tilhører den myndige og ærværdige patriark. Begrebet patriark kommer af græsk "patria", der betyder slægt og -ark, der betyder leder eller anfører. Patriarken er slægtens anfører og som sådan ikke kønsbestemt, men i bibelens gamle testamente er Abraham og hans søn Isak og dennes søn Jakob patriarker.
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Vatikan:[ - ] Vatikanstaten er en bystat på 44,2 hektar i Rom i Italien, og er samtidig verdens mindste suveræne stat, der har bred global accept.
Vatikanstatens politik varetages af et enevældigt valgmonarki, hvor lederen af den romerskkatolske kirke er ved magten. Paven er den primære lovgivende, besluttende og udøvende magt i Vatikanstaten, der adskiller sig fra Den Hellige Stol, som er et sjældent tilfælde af ikke-arveligt monarki. Vatikanstaten er det eneste tilbageværende enevældige monarki i Europa.
Historie:
Området blev i oldtiden kaldt Ager Vaticanus. Det kan måske stamme fra det latinske vaticinium, der betyder "varsel", under henvisning til, at der lå et tempel på egnen, hvortil der var knyttet nogle profeter, vates.
Området var landligt, med vingårde. Vinen derfra stod ikke højt i kurs, og Martial skrev: "Drikker du Vatikan-vinen, drikker du gift. Kan du lide eddike, kan du også lide Vatikan-vin." Da undergrunden var rig på ler og sand, var der fremstilling af tegl og porcelæn i området.
Midt på Ager Vaticanus lå en gravplads. Døde måtte ikke begraves indenfor bymurene, så Via Cornelia, der førte gennem egnen, var kantet med gravmæler. Her blev også apostlen Peter gravlagt.
Agrippina den ældre besad nogle store haver mellem Vatikanhøjden og Tiberen, og efter hendes død begyndte sønnen Caligula at bygge et cirkus der. Det blev fuldført af Nero, som opkaldte det efter Caligula og sig selv: Circus Gaii et Neronis. Her fandt en af de første kristenforfølgelser sted, og man regner med, at det var her, apostlen Peter, der også var den første Pave, led martyrdøden.
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1227
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